Input voltages up to 61 V, output voltages from 0.6 V, output currents up to 4 A, the ability to externally synchronize and adjust the frequency, as well as adjust the limiting current, adjust the soft start time, comprehensive load protection, a wide operating temperature range - all these features of modern sources power supplies are achievable using the new line of DC/DC converters produced by .
Currently, the range of switching regulator microcircuits produced by STMicro (Figure 1) allows you to create power supplies (PS) with input voltages up to 61 V and output currents up to 4 A.
The task of voltage conversion is not always easy. Each specific device has its own requirements for the voltage regulator. Sometimes price (consumer electronics), size (portable electronics), efficiency (battery-powered devices), or even the speed of product development play a major role. These requirements often contradict each other. For this reason, there is no ideal and universal voltage converter.
Currently, several types of converters are used: linear (voltage stabilizers), pulsed DC/DC converters, charge transfer circuits, and even power supplies based on galvanic insulators.
However, the most common are linear voltage regulators and step-down switching DC/DC converters. The main difference in the functioning of these schemes is evident from the name. In the first case, the power switch operates in linear mode, in the second - in key mode. The main advantages, disadvantages and applications of these schemes are given below.
Features of the linear voltage regulator
The operating principle of a linear voltage regulator is well known. The classic integrated stabilizer μA723 was developed back in 1967 by R. Widlar. Despite the fact that electronics have come a long way since then, the operating principles have remained virtually unchanged.
A standard linear voltage regulator circuit consists of a number of basic elements (Figure 2): power transistor VT1, a reference voltage source (VS), and a compensation feedback circuit on an operational amplifier (OPA). Modern regulators may contain additional functional blocks: protection circuits (from overheating, from overcurrent), power management circuits, etc.
The operating principle of such stabilizers is quite simple. The feedback circuit on the op-amp compares the value of the reference voltage with the voltage of the output divider R1/R2. A mismatch is formed at the op-amp output, which determines the gate-source voltage of power transistor VT1. The transistor operates in linear mode: the higher the voltage at the output of the op-amp, the lower the gate-source voltage, and the greater the resistance of VT1.
This circuit allows you to compensate for all changes in input voltage. Indeed, suppose that the input voltage Uin has increased. This will cause the following chain of changes: Uin increased → Uout will increase → the voltage on the divider R1/R2 will increase → the output voltage of the op-amp will increase → the gate-source voltage will decrease → the resistance VT1 will increase → Uout will decrease.
As a result, when the input voltage changes, the output voltage changes slightly.
When the output voltage decreases, reverse changes in voltage values occur.
Features of operation of a step-down DC/DC converter
A simplified circuit of a classic step-down DC/DC converter (type I converter, buck-converter, step-down converter) consists of several main elements (Figure 3): power transistor VT1, control circuit (CS), filter (Lph-Cph), reverse diode VD1.
Unlike the linear regulator circuit, transistor VT1 operates in switching mode.
The operating cycle of the circuit consists of two phases: the pump phase and the discharge phase (Figures 4...5).
In the pumping phase, transistor VT1 is open and current flows through it (Figure 4). Energy is stored in the coil Lf and capacitor Cf.
During the discharge phase, the transistor is closed, no current flows through it. The Lf coil acts as a current source. VD1 is a diode that is necessary for reverse current to flow.
In both phases, a voltage equal to the voltage on the capacitor Sph is applied to the load.
The above circuit provides regulation of the output voltage when the pulse duration changes:
Uout = Uin × (ti/T)
If the inductance value is small, the discharge current through the inductance has time to reach zero. This mode is called the intermittent current mode. It is characterized by an increase in current and voltage ripple on the capacitor, which leads to a deterioration in the quality of the output voltage and an increase in circuit noise. For this reason, the intermittent current mode is rarely used.
There is a type of converter circuit in which the “inefficient” diode VD1 is replaced with a transistor. This transistor opens in antiphase with the main transistor VT1. Such a converter is called synchronous and has greater efficiency.
Advantages and disadvantages of voltage conversion circuits
If one of the above schemes had absolute superiority, then the second would be safely forgotten. However, this does not happen. This means that both schemes have advantages and disadvantages. Analysis of schemes should be carried out according to a wide range of criteria (Table 1).
Table 1. Advantages and disadvantages of voltage regulator circuits
| Characteristic | Linear regulator | Buck DC/DC converter |
| Typical input voltage range, V | up to 30 | up to 100 |
| Typical Output Current Range | hundreds of mA | units A |
| Efficiency | short | high |
| Output voltage setting accuracy | units % | units % |
| Output voltage stability | high | average |
| Generated noise | short | high |
| Circuit implementation complexity | low | high |
| Complexity of PCB topology | low | high |
| Price | low | high |
Electrical characteristics. For any converter, the main characteristics are efficiency, load current, input and output voltage range.
The efficiency value for linear regulators is low and is inversely proportional to the input voltage (Figure 6). This is due to the fact that all the “extra” voltage drops across the transistor operating in linear mode. The transistor's power is released as heat. Low efficiency leads to the fact that the range of input voltages and output currents of the linear regulator is relatively small: up to 30 V and up to 1 A.
The efficiency of a switching regulator is much higher and less dependent on the input voltage. At the same time, it is not uncommon for input voltages of more than 60 V and load currents of more than 1 A.
If a synchronous converter circuit is used, in which the inefficient freewheeling diode is replaced by a transistor, then the efficiency will be even higher.
Accuracy and stability of output voltage. Linear stabilizers can have extremely high accuracy and stability of parameters (fractions of a percent). The dependence of the output voltage on changes in the input voltage and on the load current does not exceed a few percent.
According to the principle of operation, a pulse regulator initially has the same sources of error as a linear regulator. In addition, the deviation of the output voltage can be significantly affected by the amount of current flowing.
Noise characteristics. The linear regulator has a moderate noise response. There are low-noise precision regulators used in high-precision measuring technology.
The switching stabilizer itself is a powerful source of interference, since the power transistor operates in switch mode. Generated noise is divided into conducted (transmitted through power lines) and inductive (transmitted through non-conducting media).
Conducted interference is eliminated using low-pass filters. The higher the operating frequency of the converter, the easier it is to get rid of interference. In measuring circuits, a switching regulator is often used in conjunction with a linear stabilizer. In this case, the level of interference is significantly reduced.
It is much more difficult to get rid of the harmful effects of inductive interference. This noise originates in the inductor and is transmitted through air and non-conducting media. To eliminate them, shielded inductors and coils on a toroidal core are used. When laying out the board, they use a continuous fill of earth with a polygon and/or even select a separate layer of earth in multilayer boards. In addition, the pulse converter itself is as far away from the measuring circuits as possible.
Performance characteristics. From the point of view of simplicity of circuit implementation and printed circuit board layout, linear regulators are extremely simple. In addition to the integrated stabilizer itself, only a couple of capacitors are required.
A switching converter will require at least an external L-C filter. In some cases, an external power transistor and an external freewheeling diode are required. This leads to the need for calculations and modeling, and the topology of the printed circuit board becomes significantly more complicated. Additional complexity of the board occurs due to EMC requirements.
Price. Obviously, due to the large number of external components, a pulse converter will have a high cost.
As a conclusion, the advantageous areas of application of both types of converters can be identified:
- Linear regulators can be used in low power, low voltage circuits with high accuracy, stability and low noise requirements. An example would be measurement and precision circuits. In addition, the small size and low cost of the final solution can be ideal for portable electronics and low-cost devices.
- Switching regulators are ideal for high-power low- and high-voltage circuits in automotive, industrial and consumer electronics. High efficiency often makes the use of DC/DC no alternative for portable and battery-powered devices.
Sometimes it becomes necessary to use linear regulators at high input voltages. In such cases, you can use stabilizers produced by STMicroelectronics, which have operating voltages of more than 18 V (Table 2).
Table 2. STMicroelectronics Linear Regulators with High Input Voltage
| Name | Description | Uin max, V | Uout nom, V | Iout nom, A | Own drop, V |
| 35 | 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15 | 0.5 | 2 | ||
| 500 mA precision regulator | 40 | 24 | 0.5 | 2 | |
| 2 A regulator | 35 | 0.225 | 2 | 2 | |
| , | Adjustable regulator | 40 | – | 0.1; 0.5; 1.5 | 2 |
| 3 A regulator | 20 | – | 3 | 2 | |
| 150 mA precision regulator | 40 | – | 0.15 | 3 | |
| KFxx | 20 | 2.5: 8 | 0.5 | 0.4 | |
| Ultra-low self-drop regulator | 20 | 2.7: 12 | 0.25 | 0.4 | |
| 5 A regulator with low dropout and output voltage adjustment | 30 | – | 1.5; 3; 5 | 1.3 | |
| LExx | Ultra-low self-drop regulator | 20 | 3; 3.3; 4.5; 5; 8 | 0.1 | 0.2 |
| Ultra-low self-drop regulator | 20 | 3.3; 5 | 0.1 | 0.2 | |
| Ultra-low self-drop regulator | 40 | 3.3; 5 | 0.1 | 0.25 | |
| 85 mA regulator with low self-dropout | 24 | 2.5: 3.3 | 0.085 | 0.5 | |
| Precision Negative Voltage Regulator | -35 | -5; -8; -12; -15 | 1.5 | 1.1; 1.4 | |
| Negative voltage regulator | -35 | -5; -8; -12; -15 | 0.1 | 1.7 | |
| Adjustable Negative Voltage Regulator | -40 | – | 1.5 | 2 |
If a decision is made to build a pulsed power supply, then a suitable converter chip should be selected. The choice is made taking into account a number of basic parameters.
Main characteristics of step-down pulse DC/DC converters
Let us list the main parameters of pulse converters.
Input voltage range (V). Unfortunately, there is always a limitation not only on the maximum, but also on the minimum input voltage. The value of these parameters is always selected with some margin.
Output voltage range (V). Due to restrictions on the minimum and maximum pulse duration, the range of output voltage values is limited.
Maximum output current (A). This parameter is limited by a number of factors: the maximum permissible power dissipation, the final value of the resistance of the power switches, etc.
Converter operating frequency (kHz). The higher the conversion frequency, the easier it is to filter the output voltage. This makes it possible to combat interference and reduce the values of the external L-C filter elements, which leads to an increase in output currents and a reduction in size. However, an increase in the conversion frequency increases switching losses of power switches and increases the inductive component of interference, which is clearly undesirable.
Efficiency (%) is an integral indicator of efficiency and is given in the form of graphs for various voltages and currents.
The remaining parameters (channel resistance of integrated power switches (mOhm), self-current consumption (µA), thermal resistance of the case, etc.) are less important, but they should also be taken into account.
The new converters from STMicroelectronics have high input voltage and efficiency, and their parameters can be calculated using the free eDesignSuite software.
Line of pulsed DC/DC from ST Microelectronics
STMicroelectronics' DC/DC portfolio is constantly expanding. New converter microcircuits have an extended input voltage range up to 61 V ( / / ), high output currents, output voltages from 0.6 V ( / / ) (Table 3).
Table 3. New DC/DC STMicroelectronics
| Characteristics | Name | |||||||
| L7987; L7987L | ||||||||
| Frame | VFQFPN-10L | HSOP-8; VFQFPN-8L; SO8 | HSOP-8; VFQFPN-8L; SO8 | HTSSOP16 | VFQFPN-10L; HSOP 8 | VFQFPN-10L; HSOP 8 | HSOP 8 | HTSSOP 16 |
| Input voltage Uin, V | 4.0…18 | 4.0…18 | 4.0…18 | 4…38 | 4.5…38 | 4.5…38 | 4.5…38 | 4.5…61 |
| Output current, A | 4 | 3 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 2 (L7987L); 3 (L7987) |
| Output voltage range, V | 0.8…0.88×Uin | 0.8…Uin | 0.8…Uin | 0.85…Uin | 0.6…Uin | 0.6…Uin | 0.6…Uin | 0.8…Uin |
| Operating frequency, kHz | 500 | 850 | 850 | 250…2000 | 250…1000 | 250…1000 | 250…1000 | 250…1500 |
| External frequency synchronization (max), kHz | No | No | No | 2000 | 1000 | 1000 | 1000 | 1500 |
| Functions | Smooth start; overcurrent protection; overheat protection | |||||||
| Additional functions | ENABLE; PGOOD | ENABLE | LNM; LCM; INHIBIT; Overvoltage protection | ENABLE | PGOOD; protection against voltage dips; cut-off current adjustment | |||
| Crystal operating temperature range, °C | -40…150 | |||||||
All new pulse converter microcircuits have soft start, overcurrent and overheating protection functions.
DC/DC converters are widely used to power various electronic equipment. They are used in computer devices, communication devices, various control and automation circuits, etc.
Transformer power supplies
In traditional transformer power supplies, the voltage of the supply network is converted, most often reduced, to the desired value using a transformer. The reduced voltage is smoothed out by a capacitor filter. If necessary, a semiconductor stabilizer is installed after the rectifier.
Transformer power supplies are usually equipped with linear stabilizers. Such stabilizers have at least two advantages: low cost and a small number of parts in the harness. But these advantages are eroded by low efficiency, since a significant part of the input voltage is used to heat the control transistor, which is completely unacceptable for powering portable electronic devices.
DC/DC converters
If the equipment is powered from galvanic cells or batteries, then converting the voltage to the required level is only possible using DC/DC converters.
The idea is quite simple: direct voltage is converted into alternating voltage, usually with a frequency of several tens or even hundreds of kilohertz, increased (decreased), and then rectified and supplied to the load. Such converters are often called pulse converters.
An example is a boost converter from 1.5V to 5V, just the output voltage of a computer USB. A similar low-power converter is sold on Aliexpress.
Rice. 1. Converter 1.5V/5V
Pulse converters are good because they have high efficiency, ranging from 60..90%. Another advantage of pulse converters is a wide range of input voltages: the input voltage can be lower than the output voltage or much higher. In general, DC/DC converters can be divided into several groups.
Classification of converters
Lowering, in English terminology step-down or buck
The output voltage of these converters, as a rule, is lower than the input voltage: without any significant heating losses of the control transistor, you can get a voltage of only a few volts with an input voltage of 12...50V. The output current of such converters depends on the load demand, which in turn determines the circuit design of the converter.
Another English name for a step-down converter is chopper. One of the translation options for this word is interrupter. In technical literature, a step-down converter is sometimes called a “chopper”. For now, let's just remember this term.
Increasing, in English terminology step-up or boost
The output voltage of these converters is higher than the input voltage. For example, with an input voltage of 5V, the output voltage can be up to 30V, and its smooth regulation and stabilization is possible. Quite often, boost converters are called boosters.
Universal converters - SEPIC
The output voltage of these converters is maintained at a given level when the input voltage is either higher or lower than the input voltage. Recommended in cases where the input voltage can vary within significant limits. For example, in a car, the battery voltage can vary within 9...14V, but you need to get a stable voltage of 12V.
Inverting converters
The main function of these converters is to produce an output voltage of reverse polarity relative to the power source. Very convenient in cases where bipolar power is required, for example.
All of the mentioned converters can be stabilized or unstabilized; the output voltage can be galvanically connected to the input voltage or have galvanic voltage isolation. It all depends on the specific device in which the converter will be used.
To move on to a further story about DC/DC converters, you should at least understand the theory in general terms.
Step-down converter chopper - buck converter
Its functional diagram is shown in the figure below. The arrows on the wires show the directions of the currents.
Fig.2. Functional diagram of chopper stabilizer
The input voltage Uin is supplied to the input filter - capacitor Cin. The VT transistor is used as a key element; it carries out high-frequency current switching. It can be either. In addition to the indicated parts, the circuit contains a discharge diode VD and an output filter - LCout, from which the voltage is supplied to the load Rн.
It is easy to see that the load is connected in series with elements VT and L. Therefore, the circuit is sequential. How does voltage drop occur?
Pulse width modulation - PWM
The control circuit produces rectangular pulses with a constant frequency or constant period, which is essentially the same thing. These pulses are shown in Figure 3.
Fig.3. Control pulses
Here t is the pulse time, the transistor is open, t is the pause time, and the transistor is closed. The ratio ti/T is called the duty cycle duty cycle, denoted by the letter D and expressed in %% or simply in numbers. For example, with D equal to 50%, it turns out that D=0.5.
Thus, D can vary from 0 to 1. With a value of D=1, the key transistor is in a state of full conduction, and with D=0 in a cutoff state, simply put, it is closed. It is not difficult to guess that at D=50% the output voltage will be equal to half the input.
It is quite obvious that the output voltage is regulated by changing the width of the control pulse t and, in fact, by changing the coefficient D. This regulation principle is called (PWM). In almost all switching power supplies, it is with the help of PWM that the output voltage is stabilized.
In the diagrams shown in Figures 2 and 6, the PWM is “hidden” in rectangles labeled “Control circuit,” which performs some additional functions. For example, this could be a soft start of the output voltage, remote switching on, or short circuit protection of the converter.
In general, converters have become so widely used that manufacturers of electronic components have started producing PWM controllers for all occasions. The assortment is so large that just to list them you would need a whole book. Therefore, it never occurs to anyone to assemble converters using discrete elements, or as they often say in “loose” form.
Moreover, ready-made low-power converters can be purchased on Aliexpress or Ebay for a low price. In this case, for installation in an amateur design, it is enough to solder the input and output wires to the board and set the required output voltage.
But let's return to our Figure 3. In this case, the coefficient D determines how long it will be open (phase 1) or closed (phase 2). For these two phases, the circuit can be represented in two drawings. The figures DO NOT SHOW those elements that are not used in this phase.
Fig.4. Phase 1
When the transistor is open, the current from the power source (galvanic cell, battery, rectifier) passes through the inductive choke L, the load Rн, and the charging capacitor Cout. At the same time, current flows through the load, capacitor Cout and inductor L accumulate energy. The current iL GRADUALLY INCREASES, due to the influence of the inductance of the inductor. This phase is called pumping.
After the load voltage reaches the set value (determined by the control device settings), the VT transistor closes and the device moves to the second phase - the discharge phase. The closed transistor in the figure is not shown at all, as if it does not exist. But this only means that the transistor is closed.
Fig.5. Phase 2
When the VT transistor is closed, there is no replenishment of energy in the inductor, since the power source is turned off. Inductance L tends to prevent changes in the magnitude and direction of the current (self-induction) flowing through the inductor winding.
Therefore, the current cannot stop instantly and is closed through the “diode-load” circuit. Because of this, the VD diode is called a discharge diode. As a rule, this is a high-speed Schottky diode. After the control period, phase 2, the circuit switches to phase 1, and the process repeats again. The maximum voltage at the output of the considered circuit can be equal to the input, and nothing more. To obtain an output voltage greater than the input, boost converters are used.
For now, we just need to remind you about the amount of inductance, which determines the two operating modes of the chopper. If the inductance is insufficient, the converter will operate in the breaking current mode, which is completely unacceptable for power supplies.
If the inductance is large enough, then operation occurs in the continuous current mode, which makes it possible, using output filters, to obtain a constant voltage with an acceptable level of ripple. Boost converters, which will be discussed below, also operate in the continuous current mode.
To slightly increase the efficiency, the discharge diode VD is replaced with a MOSFET transistor, which is opened at the right moment by the control circuit. Such converters are called synchronous. Their use is justified if the power of the converter is large enough.
Step-up or boost converters
Boost converters are used mainly for low-voltage power supply, for example, from two or three batteries, and some design components require a voltage of 12...15V with low current consumption. Quite often, a boost converter is briefly and clearly called the word “booster”.
Fig.6. Functional diagram of a boost converter
The input voltage Uin is applied to the input filter Cin and supplied to the series-connected L and switching transistor VT. A VD diode is connected to the connection point between the coil and the drain of the transistor. The load Rн and the shunt capacitor Cout are connected to the other terminal of the diode.
The VT transistor is controlled by a control circuit that produces a control signal of a stable frequency with an adjustable duty cycle D, just as was described just above when describing the chopper circuit (Fig. 3). The VD diode blocks the load from the key transistor at the right times.
When the key transistor is open, the right output of the coil L according to the diagram is connected to the negative pole of the power source Uin. An increasing current (due to the influence of inductance) from the power source flows through the coil and the open transistor, and energy accumulates in the coil.
At this time, the diode VD blocks the load and output capacitor from the switching circuit, thereby preventing the output capacitor from discharging through the open transistor. The load at this moment is powered by the energy accumulated in the capacitor Cout. Naturally, the voltage across the output capacitor drops.
As soon as the output voltage drops slightly below the set value (determined by the settings of the control circuit), the key transistor VT closes, and the energy stored in the inductor, through the diode VD, recharges the capacitor Cout, which energizes the load. In this case, the self-induction emf of the coil L is added to the input voltage and transferred to the load, therefore, the output voltage is greater than the input voltage.
When the output voltage reaches the set stabilization level, the control circuit opens the transistor VT, and the process repeats from the energy storage phase.
Universal converters - SEPIC (single-ended primary-inductor converter or converter with an asymmetrically loaded primary inductance).
Such converters are mainly used when the load has insignificant power, and the input voltage changes relative to the output voltage up or down.
Fig.7. Functional diagram of the SEPIC converter
Very similar to the boost converter circuit shown in Figure 6, but with additional elements: capacitor C1 and coil L2. It is these elements that ensure the operation of the converter in the voltage reduction mode.
SEPIC converters are used in applications where the input voltage varies widely. An example is 4V-35V to 1.23V-32V Boost Buck Voltage Step Up/Down Converter Regulator. It is under this name that the converter is sold in Chinese stores, the circuit of which is shown in Figure 8 (click on the figure to enlarge).
Fig.8. Schematic diagram of SEPIC converter
Figure 9 shows the appearance of the board with the designation of the main elements.
Fig.9. Appearance of the SEPIC converter
The figure shows the main parts according to Figure 7. Note that there are two coils L1 L2. Based on this feature, you can determine that this is a SEPIC converter.
The input voltage of the board can be within 4…35V. In this case, the output voltage can be adjusted within 1.23…32V. The operating frequency of the converter is 500 KHz. With small dimensions of 50 x 25 x 12 mm, the board provides power up to 25 W. Maximum output current up to 3A.
But a remark should be made here. If the output voltage is set at 10V, then the output current cannot be higher than 2.5A (25W). With an output voltage of 5V and a maximum current of 3A, the power will be only 15W. The main thing here is not to overdo it: either do not exceed the maximum permissible power, or do not go beyond the permissible current limits.
I recently assembled a digital device on a microcontroller, and the question arose about its power supply in field conditions; it needs a voltage of 12 volts and a current of approximately 50 mA. Moreover, it is very sensitive to voltage ripple and from several switching power supplies, it did not want to work from some equipment. After searching on the Internet, I found one of the most optimal and cheapest options: DC-DC boost converter on a chip MC34063. To calculate, you can use a calculator program. I inserted the parameters that were needed (it can work as an increase or decrease) and got this result:
The supply voltage of the microcircuit should not exceed 40 volts, and the current should not exceed 1.5 A. There are printed circuit boards online and for SMD parts, but I don’t have them in stock, so I decided to make my own. Please note that there are two 0.2 ohm resistances drawn there. I only had a 5-watt one, so I made it for it, but if I had found a smaller one, I would have soldered it to another place and cut off the excess.
Instead of a resistance at R1- 1.5 kOhm, I installed a trimmer at 5 kOhm to regulate the output voltage. By the way, it regulates within a fairly decent range from 7 to 16, more is possible, but the output capacitor is set at 16 volts, so I didn’t raise it further.
And now briefly about the operation of the converter. I applied 3 volts, adjusted (R1) the output to 12 volts - and it maintains this voltage when the power is reduced to 2.5 volts and raised to 11 volts!
Today we are reviewing the famous DC-DC boost voltage converter based on the MT3608 chip. The board is popular among those who like to create something with their own hands. It is used in particular for building homemade external chargers (power banks).
Today we will conduct a very detailed review, study all the advantages and find out the disadvantages
Such a board costs only $0.5, knowing that during the review there would be tough tests that could result in failure of the boards, I bought several of them at once.
The board is of very good quality, the installation is double-sided, to be more precise, almost the entire reverse side is mass, and at the same time plays the role of a heat sink. Overall dimensions 36 mm * 17 mm * 14 mm
The manufacturer specifies the following parameters
1). Maximum output current - 2A
2). Input voltage: 2V~24V
3). Maximum output voltage: 28 V
4). Efficiency: ≤93%
Product size: 36mm * 17mm * 14mm
And the diagram is presented below.
The board has a tuning multi-turn resistor with a resistance of 100 kOhm, designed to adjust the output voltage. Initially, for the converter to work, you need to rotate the variable 10 steps counterclockwise, only after this the circuit will begin to increase the voltage, in other words, the variable turns idle until halfway.
The input and output are marked on the board, so there will be no connection problems.
Let's move directly to the tests.
1) The declared maximum voltage is 28 Volts, which corresponds to the real value
2) The minimum voltage at which the board starts working is 2 Volts, I will say that this is not entirely true, the board remains operational at this voltage, but starts working at 2.3-2.5 Volts
3) The maximum value of the input voltage is 24 Volts, I will say that one of the 8 boards I purchased could not withstand such an input voltage, the rest passed the exam perfectly.
4) Output short circuit mode. The laboratory power supply from which the source is powered is equipped with a current limiting system; in case of a short circuit at the output, the consumption from the laboratory power supply is 5 A (this is the maximum that the LPS can provide). Based on this, we conclude that if you connect an inverter, for example, to a battery, then in the event of a short circuit, the latter will instantly burn out - it has no protection against short circuits. There is also no overload protection.
6) What happens if the connection polarity is reversed. This test is clearly visible in the video, the board simply burns up with smoke, and it’s the microcircuit that burns out.
7) The no-load current is only 6mA, a very good result.
8) Now the output current. A voltage of 12 Volts is supplied to the input, and 14 Volts at the output, i.e. the input-output difference is only 2 Volts, the best operating conditions are ensured, and if with this situation the circuit does not produce 2 Amperes, then with other input-output values it cannot provide this.
Temperature tests
P.S. During the tests, the throttle began to smell of varnish and therefore it was replaced with a better one, at least the diameter of the wire of the new throttle is 2 times thicker than that of the original one.
In the case of these tests, a voltage of 12 Volts is applied to the input of the board, and 14 Volts is set at the output
Heat generation on the throttle, the throttle has already been replaced
Heat dissipation on the diode
Heat dissipation on the chip
As you can see, the temperature in some cases is above 100 degrees, but is stable.
It should also be pointed out that under such operating conditions the output parameters deteriorate significantly, which is to be expected.
As we can see, with an output current of 2A, the voltage sags, so I recommend using the board at currents of 1-1.2 Amps maximum; at higher values, the stability of the output voltage is lost, and the microcircuit, inductor and output rectifier diode overheat.
9) Oscillogram of the output voltage, where we observe ripples.
The situation can be improved if an electrolyte (35-50 Volts) is soldered parallel to the output, the capacity is from 47 to 220 μF (up to 470 is possible, there is no point anymore)
Generator operating frequency is about 1.5 MHz
Test error is no more than 5%
Sometimes you need to get high voltage from low voltage. For example, for a high-voltage programmer powered by a 5-volt USB, you need somewhere around 12 volts.
What should I do? There are DC-DC conversion circuits for this. As well as specialized microcircuits that allow you to solve this problem in a dozen parts.
Principle of operation
So, how do you make, for example, five volts something more than five? You can come up with many ways - for example, charge capacitors in parallel, and then switch them in series. And so many many times per second. But there is a simpler way, using the properties of inductance, to maintain current strength.
To make it very clear, I will first show an example for plumbers.
Phase 1
The damper closes abruptly. The flow has nowhere else to go, and the turbine, being accelerated, continues to push the liquid forward, because cannot get up instantly. Moreover, it presses it with a force greater than the source can develop. Drives the slurry through the valve into the pressure accumulator. Where does part of it (already with increased pressure) go to the consumer? From where, thanks to the valve, it no longer returns.
Phase 3
And again the damper closes, and the turbine begins to violently push liquid into the battery. Making up for the losses that occurred there in phase 3.
Back to diagrams
We get out of the basement, take off the plumber's sweatshirt, throw the gas wrench into the corner and, with new knowledge, begin to construct the diagram.
Instead of a turbine, inductance in the form of a choke is quite suitable for us. An ordinary key (in practice, a transistor) is used as a damper, a diode is naturally used as a valve, and a capacitor takes on the role of a pressure accumulator. Who else but he is capable of accumulating potential. That's it, the converter is ready!
Phase 1
The key opens, but the coil cannot be stopped. The energy stored in the magnetic field rushes out, the current tends to be maintained at the same level as it was at the moment the key was opened. As a result, the voltage at the output from the coil jumps sharply (to make way for the current) and, breaking through the diode, is packed into the capacitor. Well, part of the energy goes into the load.
Phase 3
The key opens and the energy from the coil again breaks through the diode into the capacitor, increasing the voltage that dropped during phase 3. The cycle is completed.
As can be seen from the process, it is clear that due to the greater current from the source, we increase the voltage at the consumer. So the equality of power here must be strictly observed. Ideally, with a converter efficiency of 100%:
U source *I source = U consumption *I consumption
So if our consumer requires 12 volts and consumes 1A, then from a 5 volt source into the converter you need to feed as much as 2.4A. At the same time, I did not take into account the losses of the source, although usually they are not very large (the efficiency is usually about 80-90%).
If the source is weak and is not able to supply 2.4 amperes, then at 12 volts there will be wild ripples and a drop in voltage - the consumer will eat the contents of the capacitor faster than the source will throw it there.
Circuit design
There are a lot of ready-made DC-DC solutions. Both in the form of microblocks and specialized microcircuits. I won’t split hairs and, to demonstrate my experience, I’ll give an example of a circuit on the MC34063A that I already used in the example.
- SWC/SWE pins of the transistor switch of the chip SWC is its collector, and SWE is its emitter. The maximum current it can draw is 1.5A of input current, but you can also connect an external transistor for any desired current (for more details, see the datasheet for the chip).
- DRC - compound transistor collector
- Ipk - current protection input. There, the voltage is removed from the shunt Rsc; if the current is exceeded and the voltage on the shunt (Upk = I*Rsc) becomes higher than 0.3 volts, the converter will stall. Those. To limit the incoming current to 1A, you need to install a 0.3 Ohm resistor. I didn’t have a 0.3 ohm resistor, so I put a jumper there. It will work, but without protection. If anything, it will kill my microcircuit.
- TC is the input of the capacitor that sets the operating frequency.
- CII is the comparator input. When the voltage at this input is below 1.25 volts, the key generates pulses and the converter operates. As soon as it gets bigger, it turns off. Here, through a divider on R1 and R2, the feedback voltage from the output is applied. Moreover, the divider is selected in such a way that when the voltage we need appears at the output, there will be exactly 1.25 volts at the input of the comparator. Then everything is simple - is the output voltage lower than necessary? We're threshing. Did you get what you needed? Let's switch off.
- Vcc - Circuit Power
- GND - Ground
All formulas for calculating denominations are given in the datasheet. I will copy from it here the most important table for us:
Etched, soldered...
Just like that. A simple scheme, but it allows you to solve a number of problems.